Dmitry (Dmytro) Danilov. The term dhyana in the system of yoga: deconstruction

H. S. Skovoroda Institute of Philosophy of NAS of Ukraine (Kyiv)

Dhyana (dhyāna), a category of yoga and a practical element of the teaching, is one of the basic elements of yoga philosophy (yogadarśana). Modern texts translate it as meditation. This term has ancient roots that go back to Ṛg Veda (ca. 1200 BC), a sacred text of Ancient India. Later dhyāna becomes a part of yoga in the Upaniṣads, and a cornerstone in the framework of Patañjali’s yoga. It is a fundamental term that other descriptions of yoga practices rest on.

The purpose of the report is to uncover meanings attributed to this term at the time of Ṛg Veda, early Upaniṣads and Patañjali’s Yogasūtras, to illustrate the relation between them and to determine transforma- tion of dhyāna meaning. Despite the fact that dhyāna has been studied very precisely in Yogasūtras of Patañjali by many honorable scholars (S. Dasgupta, S. Vivekananda, S. Radhakrishnan), little attention has been paid to understand the roots of this term in previous texts. Some studies have been done to shed some light on the Sanskrit root dhī in Ṛg Veda (T. Elizarenkova, J. Gonda, L. Renu) [Elizarenkova 1995, p. 7]. However, there is a gap in understanding of the change of dhyā- na’s conception in the three diferent textual periods from the hymns of the earliest texts over to Upaniṣads and down to the Sūtras of Patañjali. This speech is entitled to show diferent meanings of dhyāna in each of the mentioned textual periods. Its goal is to compare them and show the process it has undergone to become a major concept of philosophy of yo- ga. This understanding will clear a common confusion of using generic translation of the term dhyāna.

The materials studied include translated fragments of the aforemen- tioned texts that deine the term dhyāna (T. Elizarenkova, A. Syrkin, R. Griit).

Ṛg Veda (rV). The term dhyāna is not used in RV; however, this source does contain words of the same root, such as dhīḥ and its derivative dhītiḥ.

Text analysis of RV shows the root dhī to be imbued with mythological images. Any speciic descriptions of practices and pragmatic aspects are not given there. Man’s activity related to dhī is directed from the inside into the outside. It is addressed to superior, more sophisticated phenomena. This root is used for words that foster extension of vision, comprehension, and cognition of the universe.

The Upaniṣads. Later on, during the period of early Upaniṣads (800-300 BC), the use of the term acquires a diferent meaning. The Upaniṣads are the irst source to introduce the term dhyāna. Here the irst techniques are being modeled and metaphors describing the process are given. On the one hand, one needs to master their mind for the purpose of cognition (dhyāna), and on the other hand, cognition is the primary assistant in taking mind under control. The authors of the Upaniṣads single out consciousness structures and arrange them hierarchically. Dhyāna is bigger than chitta or manas, yet smaller than vijñāna. It is in the Upaniṣads that cognitive power of dhyāna becomes introspective [Whicher 1998, p. 13], making ātman’s (self, selbst) tattva (suchness) an object of dhyāna’s cognitive function.

Patañjali’s Yogasūtras. In Yogasūtras of Patañjali, the philosophy of yoga attains its elegance, consistency and philosophic exactitude. Patañjali not just makes a harmonious compilation of knowledge taken from early heterogeneous texts, but it also provides a consistent introduction and explanation of every term.

The analysis of the term dhyāna in Yogasūtra was made on the basis of sūtras 2.11 and 3.2. Here dhyāna stands for the process of cognition that conduces subject’s ability to obtain any qualities of an object by means of embracing it with one’s mind, that is, by meditative immersion into this quality [Smirnov 1983, p. 208].

Patañjali gives an exact deinition of the dhyāna category leaving no room for implied knowledge – inherent to the whole corpus of previously discussed texts.

Conclusion. The meaning of the term dhyāna is non-homogeneous. Analysis of deinitions history has shown that the term meaning was continuously changing, going from less speciied and poetic in its irst mentioning in RV to clear and unambiguous deinition given in Patañjali’s Yogasūtras. At every stage, it implied diferent meanings. When using this term in modern science, it is essential that one speciies the exact meaning of the used term; otherwise it shall result in inaccuracies and misunderstandings.

Bibliography:

1) Elizarenkova, Tatyana J. (1995), Language and Style of the Vedic Rsis, Albany: State University of New York Press.
2) Smirnov B. L. (1983), Samkhya and Yoga // Mahabharata: [Philosophical texts]: in 8 vol. / TSSR Acad. of Science; Translation and foreword by B. L. Smirnov. – Ashgabad. – Vol. 6.
3) Whicher, Ian (1998), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press.

Source: Danilov D. The term dhyana in the system of yoga: deconstruction // Слово  і  невисловлюване.  Тези  дванадцятої  міжнародної  наукової  конференції  «Філософія. Нове покоління» (Київ, НаУКМА, 23–24 березня  2017 року)  /  упоряд. В. Корчевний. – К.: «Університетське видавництво Пульсари», 2017. – С. 28-30.

Yu. Fil. India cognita and incognita: Trip to big and small cities of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Odisha

Published: Філь Ю. С. Індія: погляд з великих та маленьких міст Уттар-Прадешу, Західної Бенгалії та Одіші // Східний світ. 2019. №3. С.111-126

The chronicle is dedicated to the cultural and anthropological trip taken on April 2019 by the research fellow of A. Krymskyi Institute of Oriental Studies of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine to three Indian states – Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Odisha. The places of great religious and cultural significance such as Kashi Vishvanath Temple, ghats, Sarnath (Varanasi), Kali Temple on Kalighat (Kolkata), Jahannatha Temple (Puri), Sun Temple (Konark), Lingaraj Temple and Mukteshwar complex (Bhubaneshwar) appeared under the sharp gaze of traveler. Author not only narrates about precious Indian heritage but also describe her own impressions and associations concerning it based on the knowledge about Indian history and art. Hence the famous sights reveal less famous information about themselves. Besides, author describes situations of communications with different people making anthropological investigation and enriching chronicle with many details from real life of local people and Indian daily routine.

Yulia Fil, thesis “Pavlo Ritter: Life and Contribution to Ukrainian Indology (short introduction)

International scientific round table "Ukraine India: outstanding figures of Ukrainian Indology (devoted to the memory of P.G. Ritter)" (23 May, 2019). Organized by Ukrainian Association of Indologists, Institute of World History of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine and Embassy of India in Ukraine.

Fil Yu. S. Pavlo Ritter: Life and Contribution to Ukrainian Indology (short introduction) // International scientific round table "Ukraine India: outstanding figures of Ukrainian Indology (devoted to the memory of P.G. Ritter)" (23 May, 2019).

One of the most prominent Ukrainian indologist – Pavlo Ritter – was the person nurtured by the intellectual atmosphere of Kharkiv – the second largest city of Ukraine which on the 19^th and the beginning of 20^th century was cultural and educational center of Southern part of Russian Empire. It hardly went in different way, because he was born in Chutove village in Poltava region, not far from Kharkiv. Being born on the 5^th of April 1872 in the German originated family, he demonstrated curiosity and learning zest from the early age. According to sources his German ancestors did much for the development of education at that region. So, Pavlo got a good education in one of the Ukrainian schools opened by his family. It probably defined his good practical knowledge of Ukrainian language. After graduation from school with excellent marks he entered the historical-philological department of the University of Kharkiv, the second oldest University in Ukraine after University of Lviv.

The University was founded in1804 on the initiative of the prominent educator Vasyl Karazin and in accordance with the charter of Tsar Alexander I. It bears his name nowadays. Kharkiv University is the only University in Ukraine that has trained and employed three Nobel Prize laureates: the biologist Mechnikov, the economist S. Kuznts, and the physicist L. Landau.

Pavlo Ritter was not the first Indologist at the University, his predecessors were Vikentiy Shertsl and Dmytro Ovsyanyko-Kulykovsky, figures who stood at the origins of Ukrainian Sanscrit studies. Though he expressed much interest to Indian culture and languages in his student years, it was not the main field of interest at that time. Besides them he expressed much eager to learn Romanic languages, especially Italian. So his curiosity in linguistics encompassed wide area in his young age. Later he will concentrate more on the Indian literature.

In 1894 Pavlo Ritter graduated from University and stayed at his native Department of comparative linguistics. The same year young scholar went to Berlin for internship. He studied Sanskrit in University of Berlin, now known as Humboldt University of Berlin is the oldest among four Universities in the city. He studied Sanskrit and comparative linguistics there.

But ideological situation in Tsar Russia was so that his internship invoked sharp critique from the side of Ministry of Education. So he was forced to return after year of study in Germany. Firstly he started to teach Italian, later Sanskrit and Indian literature history courses. In 1905 headed the Department of linguistics.

His professional life was very diverse and productive. Though he was a lecturer at the University, the teacher on the courses of new Eastern Languages and the scholar, he is known mostly for his translations from Sanskrit, Pali and Bengali languages.

In the 1927–1928 Pavlo Ritter published the Ukrainian translation of the novel Daśa-kumāra-Carita by Dandin, some works by Rabindranath Tagore and Bhartrihari.  He also translated Rigveda, the elegiac poem Meghadūta by Kalidasa, and started to prepare the great anthology of ancient Indian literature in Ukrainian. This Anthology was published later, in 1982. It includes some hymns of Rigveda and Atharvaveda, episodes from Mahabharata and Ramayana. Buddhism literature is represented by Dhammapada verses and jatakas. Kalidasa’s Meghadūta and Bhartrihari’s verses. Ritter also prepared to publish the translations of Kalidasa Raghuvaṃśa, Kumārasambhava. He also made the first translation of Katha Upanishad in Eastern Europe. Mostly because of his sensitivity to poetry and great talent to artistic word his translations are very elaborate and fine.

In 1926 The All Ukrainian Scientific Association of Oriental Studies was founded. Pavlo Ritter took the active part in its activity. His scholarly interest covered mostly the works by Kalidasa and Dandin, his favorite authors. The Association published The Bulletin and the journal The World of tht Orient. Unfortunatelly, for ideological reasons journal was closed in 1931. The A. Yu. Krymskyi Institute of Oriental Studies revived it in 1993.

The last years of Pavlo Ritter’s life are not clear. He died in 1931. According to some data he was repressed and died in jail. The circumstances of his death are the subject of separate research.

Yu, Fil. The caste question in the views of Hindu elites of northern India at the end of 19th – the beginning of 20th century

Published: Філь Ю.С. Кастове питання в поглядах індуської політичної еліти Північної Індії наприкінці ХІХ – початку ХХ ст. // Східний світ. 2018, № 2. С.50-62.

The traditional structure of Indian society continues to be up-to date and discussive topic among sociologists, anthropologists, historians and politologists mostly due to aliveness of caste system in the country today. The history of reflections about caste system going back to the colonial era when westernized middle class Indians tried to understand the place of Indian traditional social order in new modern one which takes the inspiration from Western egalitarian and humanistic ideas. The article is dealing with the history of ideas about caste system starting from Brahmo samaj opinion on it and ending with views of prominent politicians of Northern India Motilal Nehru, Bishan Narayan Dar, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Madan Mohan Malaviya and Lala Lajpat Rai including Arya samaj position. The radical opinion about castes of Brahmo samaj was not accepted by Arya samaj followers.While Brahmosamajists demands elimination of castes in principle, Aryasamajists do not deny varna-jati system but change the interpretation of it. Social actions of Bengali and Punjabi organizations were not the same: the affords of social reform in Arya samaj were limited by helping dalits and converting them to vedic religion, while Brahmosamajists besides social work with untouchables fought for equality among dvija castes. Using the methodological tool of putting the position of some politicians or organizations on the “modernists – traditionalists” scale, article describes the whole variety of opinions about jati system among the politicians of the Punjab and North-Western provinces on the second half of 19th – the beginning of 20th century. It is concluded that two positions were dominant among the region’s elites – “critical-modernists” (B. N. Dar and L. L. Rai) and “modernists” (M. Nehru and T. B. Sapru). The solidarity among all politicians is seen on the question that caste system as it was at that moment is incompatible with the modern way of India’s development.

Meeting with Ravi Mohan Gupta

On the 5th of March American professor Ravi Mohan Gupta delivered lecture in the Kyivan Vaishnava temple. Witnessing the kirtan performed by hundreds bhaktis he felt like making a leap in time, because such religious enthusiasm could have been seen only in America during times of Shrila Prabhupada. Originated from vaishnava family, mr. Ravi’s ancestors from generation to generation followed the tradition of gaudia vaishnavism.

The next day Ravi Gupta prabhu delivered lecture at the Institute of Philosophy named by G. S. Skovoroda as well as at the Taras Shevchenko University of Kyiv in the presence of His Excellency Embassador of India. The interest of academic community to the professor’s persona is natural, because he is the author of very serious academic research on the text “Catuhsutri Tika” – commentary on Brahma Sutra of the famous Indian saint and philosopher of XVI century Jiva Goswami. The text had not been studied before. Ravi Gupta prabhu in the very scrupulous way has juxtaposed manuscripts which came to our times and took to the account all differences in interpretations. In the result the book “The Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Goswami” had seen the world. It was translated by Yu. Yu. Zavgorodniy and O. Yu. Kukharuk. I had an honor to work on the planning imposition and general editing of the book. There is combination of spiritual vision, the tradition of religious practice and academic approach in Ravi Gupta prabhu’s book. Because of this it the book will be very interesting for the researchers as well as vaishnava bhaktis.

Unfortunately, there was no time to show Kyiv to the professor. Only after the sunset we were able to have a little walk from Zoloti Vorota (Golden Gate) to Maidan. Professor Ravi Gupta prabhu was really interested in the ancient Kyivan history as well as the relatively recent events on Maidan. I felt pride for the Ukrainian history. We reached Dnieper next day but still had less than an hour there to see the city. We came into the Temple of the Orthodox Church. It was pleasant to see with such respect Ravi Gupta prabhu treated Christian sacred symbols. I presented “ladan” (frankincense, olibanum) incense to him there.

Twenty minutes later Ravi Gupta prabhu started to deliver lecture for devotees with the question “Why the variety of religions exists?” Listening to many reasonable answers, Ravi Gupta prabhu proposed his one and I agree with him completely – God exists in His endless diversity and cannot be limited by only one image or representation. Different traditions have their revelations, true spiritual teachers and saints. Making a choice once, one has to be consistent on his way in the spiritual tradition.

Nikolai Karpitsky, 03/09/2017, Kiev-Dnieper-Kharkov

URL: https://karpitsky.dreamwidth.org/503.html